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@ARTICLE{2026AdSpR..78.6231R,
       author = {{Romana}, Harsimranjit Kaur and {Singh}, Ramesh P. and {Shukla}, Dericks Praise},
        title = "{Irrigation suitability and influence of rice cropping leading to over-extraction of groundwater in Punjab during 2000-2020}",
      journal = {Advances in Space Research},
     keywords = {Irrigation indices, Spatial variation, Rice cultivation, Inter-ionic relationship, Declining GW level, GRACE data},
         year = 2026,
        month = sep,
       volume = {78},
       number = {6},
        pages = {6231-6251},
     abstract = "{Punjab is one of the most intensively cultivated regions of the world
        and highly dependent on groundwater for irrigation. Thus,
        groundwater depletion and overexploited zones are prevalent
        across the state. This study assesses the long-term changes in
        groundwater quantity and quality in Punjab during 2000--2020 and
        its association with agricultural intensification and
        hydrological variability. Groundwater quality data from the
        Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) were used to calculate
        irrigation suitability indices like Sodium Adsorption Ratio
        (SAR), Magnesium Adsorption Ratio (MAR), Residual Sodium
        Carbonates (RSC), and Sodium Percentage (\%Na). In addition,
        GPM-IMERG precipitation data, GRACE-derived terrestrial water
        storage anomalies (TWSA), and in-situ groundwater level
        observations were used to assess long-term hydrological trends.
        The results show that precipitation has inter-annual variability
        without a significant long-term decline, whereas GRACE-TWSA and
        groundwater level data showed a significant decline depicting
        persistent groundwater depletion across most districts.
        Groundwater quality analysis revealed a consistent decline in
        irrigation suitability as per different indices. The number of
        sites deemed unsuitable increased from 13 in 2000 to 20 in 2020
        as per SAR, and the \%Na-based unsuitable sites increased from
        12 to 47. Geospatial analysis shows that the southwestern
        districts, particularly Muktsar, Bathinda, Firozpur, Mansa, and
        Moga, where rice cultivation expanded substantially, were
        severely degraded. An increase in nitrate concentrations further
        indicates the impacts of excessive fertilizer use and intensive
        pumping. The study concluded that intense rice production, high
        groundwater withdrawal, and unsustainable agricultural practices
        are the main causes of groundwater stress in Punjab and not
        variations in precipitation.}",
          doi = {10.1016/j.asr.2026.07.059},
       adsurl = {https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2026AdSpR..78.6231R},
      adsnote = {Provided by the SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System}
}