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@ARTICLE{2026NatSR..1628366P,
       author = {{Pillai}, Ullas M. and {Ghomsi}, Franck Eitel Kemgang and {Kochuparampil}, Ajith Joseph and {Raj}, Roshin P. and {Johannessen}, Ola M.},
        title = "{Sub-basin sea level budget analysis in the North Indian Ocean (2003-2024)}",
      journal = {Scientific Reports},
     keywords = {North Indian Ocean, Sea level rise, Steric Sea level, GRACE gravimetry, Indian Ocean Dipole, Earth Sciences, Oceanography},
         year = 2026,
        month = jul,
       volume = {16},
       number = {1},
          eid = {28366},
        pages = {28366},
     abstract = "{This study investigates sea level trends in the North Indian Ocean (NIO)
        from 2003 to 2024, quantifying the contributions of
        thermosteric, halosteric, and ocean mass components using
        satellite altimetry, observation-based gridded products, and
        GRACE gravimetry datasets. The NIO Sea level is rising at 4.83
        {\ensuremath{\pm}} 0.22 mm/yr, driven primarily by thermosteric
        sea level (2.21 {\ensuremath{\pm}} 0.16 mm/yr) followed by ocean
        mass component (1.69 {\ensuremath{\pm}} 0.09 mm/yr). Sub-basinal
        analysis reveals strong spatial heterogeneity, with the highest
        rates of sea level rise in the Western Bay of Bengal (5.19
        {\ensuremath{\pm}} 0.41 mm/yr) and the lowest in the Western
        Arabian Sea (4.29 {\ensuremath{\pm}} 0.27 mm/yr). A distinct
        halosteric contrast exists, where freshening accelerates rise in
        the Bay of Bengal (up to 0.65 {\ensuremath{\pm}} 0.08 mm/yr in
        the Eastern Bay), and increasing salinity suppresses it in the
        Arabian Sea (down to -1.12 {\ensuremath{\pm}} 0.12 mm/yr in the
        western Arabian Sea). Furthermore, while western sub-basins are
        predominantly steric-driven, eastern sub-basins of Bay of Bengal
        and Equatorial Indian Ocean exhibit anomalously high GRACE-
        derived mass contributions (> 3 mm/yr), likely influenced by
        post-seismic crustal adjustments from the 2004 Sumatra-Andaman
        earthquake. Interannual variability closely tracks steric
        changes modulated by ENSO and the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD),
        triggering basin-specific responses via wind anomalies and long-
        period waves. Further analysis of tropical SST indices reveals
        that the Western Tropical Indian Ocean SST index closely mirrors
        the spatial correlation structures of the Dipole Mode Index, and
        may serve as a useful indicator of regional sea level
        variability, particularly over the Equatorial Indian Ocean and
        Bay of Bengal. Ultimately, unlike the predominantly mass-driven
        global trends where both mass and steric contributions are of
        comparable magnitude, the NIO remains uniquely steric-dominated
        and the sea level budget leaves a residual of 0.98 mm/yr
        (\raisebox{-0.5ex}\textasciitilde 20\% of the total trend),
        which, while comparable to uncertainties in individual
        components, highlights remaining challenges in fully closing the
        regional sea level budget.}",
          doi = {10.1038/s41598-026-60856-5},
       adsurl = {https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2026NatSR..1628366P},
      adsnote = {Provided by the SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System}
}